Summary
The value of EU agri-food exports to Mauritius grew 53% between 2013 and 2017 while the value of EU agri-food imports from Mauritius fell 26%, with this largely attributable to the impact of EU sugar sector reforms. A ‘no deal’ Brexit however could present opportunities for Mauritian refined sugar exporters. In contrast the value of Malagasy agri-food exports to the EU grew 164%, while the value of imports from the EU grew 44%. This is attributable to the fragile political and economic stability attained since 2013. Zimbabwe’s agri-food sector trade flows have been impacted by the sustained political and economic crisis, with volatile export values and no change in the value of imports from the EU for the period as a whole. The value of agri-food exports from the Comoros has increased almost 60% since 2013, with strong growth in the unit value of earnings of both vanilla and essential oils. EU agri-food exports to the Comoros have grown faster than overall exports, at double the rate, with a strong increase in the value of EU poultry meat exports and an even larger increase in the volume. There has also been a strong increase in EU beef exports to Comoros. The Seychelles has no agro-food sector export trade with the EU, while the value of agri-food imports from the EU rose 61% between 2013 and 2017. Dairy products led the way in this trade expansion, with EU poultry meat exports also getting under way during this period. Brexit related issues arise for Zimbabwe in the resurgent cut flower trade given the dominant role the Dutch flower auction houses play in this trade and the potential for Brexit related disruption of triangular supply chains. Initiatives will be needed to ‘Brexit-proof’ these supply chains. For Seychelles and Madagascar Brexit related rules of origin issues in the fisheries sector will also need to be addressed under a ‘no-deal’ outcome to the current Brexit negotiations, with this potentially opening up investment and export trade opportunities in relations with the UK.Mauritius-EU Agri-Food Sector Trade
Between 2013 and 2017 EU agri-food exports to Mauritius grew 53%, compared to an overall growth in value of total EU exports to Mauritius of 11.9%. Between 2013 and 2017 the % share of agri-food products in total EU exports to Mauritius increased from 13.6% to 18.5%. The EU exports a diversified range of agri-food products to Mauritius, with in 2017 dairy products leading the way despite the depressed dairy prices since 2013 (1).
Main EU Agri-Food Exports to Mauritius
| 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | % change | |
| Total Agri-food exports | 115 | 130 | 154 | 158 | 176 | 53.0% |
| Dairy products | 13 | 16 | 15 | 17 | 18 | +38.5% |
| Wheat | 19 | 22 | 23 | 18 | 17 | -10.5% |
| Preparations of vegetables | 7 | 8 | 12 | 13 | 14 | +100% |
| Food preparations not specified | 9 | 9 | 11 | 11 | 12 | +33.3% |
| Infant formula | 11 | 12 | 9 | 9 | 11 | 0% |
| Wine etc | 7 | 7 | 9 | 11 | 11 | +57.1% |
| Pasta, Pastries, biscuits etc | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 11 | +37.5% |
| Chocolate & confectionary | 6 | 7 | 9 | 11 | 10 | +66.7% |
| Meat & Meat preparations | 5 | 6 | 8 | 8 | 10 | +100% |
| Spirits | 4 | 4 | 8 | 10 | 9 | +125% |
| Cigars and cigarettes | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 8 | +400% |
| Waters and soft drinks | 4 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 7 | +75% |
| Vegetable oils | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 5 | +66.7% |
| – Sub-Total | 98 | 111 | 126 | 131 | 143 | +45.9% |
Source: EU Agri-food trade with Mauritius (2)
In the case of Mauritian exports to the EU 90% of exports are accounted for by ‘sugar, textiles and fisheries’ products (1). The decline in the value of Mauritian sugar exports by 26.1% between 2012 and 2017 had a major bearing on the overall trend in the value of exports to the EU.
Factoring out sugar exports, the value of other Mauritian exports to the EU fell only 7.7%. In 2012 sugar export accounted for 23% of total Mauritian exports to the EU with this falling to 19.4% 2017 (1). There are however areas of non-traditional export growth from Mauritius with, for example, the EC highlighting the growth in Mauritian exports of edible cake decorations to the EU.
Mauritian Sugar exports to the EU 2012-2017
| 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | % change | |
| € | 242,213,398 | 289,344,794 | 225,531,590 | 181,857,515 | 185,315,171 | 179,078,973 | -26.1% |
| Tonnes | 315,999 | 397,138 | 415,380 | 385,822 | 368,087 | 324,660 | +2.7% |
Source: EC Market Access Data Base (3)
Madagascar-EU Agri-Food Sector Trade
Between 2013 and 2017 there was strong growth in the value of Malagasy exports to the EU, with the EC attributing this to the ‘low start level, due to the political crisis and insolation of Madagascar between 2009 and 2013, before a return to stability and democracy as of 2013/2014’ (1). This is indeed the case. Between 2008 and 2009 the value of Malagasy exports to the EU fell 18%. Over the 2009-12 period the average annual value of Malagasy exports to the EU was 6.4% below 2008 levels (2). It was only in 2013 that a sustained recovery in export values occurred, increasing 102% by 2017 (1).
According to the EC, Malagasy exports consist mainly of ‘textiles, followed by vanilla, fisheries, fruits and cobalt’ (1). However the export of a range of value added agri-food products is being developed including single origin chocolate products.
In the EU’s export trade with Madagascar agri-food products accounted for under 11% of total EU exports in 2017 up from 9% in 2013. Between 2013 and 2017 EU agri-food exports to Madagascar grew 44% compared to an overall increase in EU exports of 28%. This followed a sharp slump in EU export values in 2009 in the face of the political crisis in Madagascar (-24%). The value of EU exports remained at below pre-crisis levels until 2015, with only a gradual recovery in EU export values from 2010 emerging (2).
EU-Madagascar Trade (total and agri-food products € million and % share agri-food products)
| 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | % change | |
| EU imports from Madagascar | ||||||
| EU Total Imports (€ m) | 738 | 840 | 904 | 986 | 1,178 | +60% |
| EU Agri- Food Imports (€ m) | 180 | 196 | 224 | 348 | 475 | +164% |
| Agri-food % total EU imports | 24% | 23% | 25% | 35% | 40% | |
| EU exports to Madagascar | ||||||
| EU Total Exports (€ m) | 537 | 532 | 563 | 556 | 685 | +28% |
| EU Total Agri Food Exports (€ m) | 50 | 51 | 47 | 57 | 72 | +44% |
| Agri-food % total EU Exports | 9% | 10% | 8% | 10% | 11% |
Source: EU Agri-food trade with Madagascar (4)
Most of the growth in EU export values occurred in 2017 when export values increased 26.3% in a single year. Somewhat obscurely the most important category of EU exports to Madagascar in 2017 was pet food, which accounted for 26.4% of the value of EU agri-food product exports. This was followed by Malt (13.9%) and Dairy products (9.7%), with the three categories of food preparations, soups and sauces and pasta, pastries and biscuits, each accounting 6.9% of EU exports and vegetable oils some 4.2% (4).
Collectively these products accounted for 75% of EU agri-food exports to Madagascar in 2017, with these products experiencing some of the most significant export growth since 2013.
Zimbabwe-EU Agri-Food Sector Trade
As in the case of Madagascar, Zimbabwe’s trade with the EU has been profoundly affected by a sustained political and economic crisis which has fallen particularly heavily on the agri-food sector. This needs to be seen in the context of the highly diversified and sophisticated agri-food sector which Zimbabwe had before the political and economic crisis engulfed the country.
EU-Zimbabwe Trade (total and agri-food products € million and % share agri-food products)
| 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | % change | |
| EU imports from Zimbabwe | ||||||
| EU Total Imports (€ m) | 388 | 510 | 402 | 334 | 454 | +17% |
| EU Agri- Food Imports (€ m) | 220 | 286 | 283 | 215 | 231 | +5% |
| Agri-food % total EU imports | 57% | 56% | 70% | 64% | 51% | |
| EU exports to Zimbabwe | ||||||
| EU Total Exports (€ m) | 241 | 221 | 220 | 174 | 192 | -10.3% |
| EU Total Agri Food Exports (€ m) | 15 | 27 | 21 | 20 | 15 | 0% |
| Agri-food % total EU Exports | 6% | 12% | 10% | 11% | 8% |
Source: EU Agri-food trade with Zimbabwe (5)
In terms of Zimbabwe’s exports to the EU agri-food product export values have proved highly volatile, ranging year on year from 30% increases to 24% declines, with only a 5% increase from 2013 to 2017 in agri-food export values to the EU. This has nevertheless seen the % share of agri-food products in total exports to the EU increasing as non-food export values to the EU have declined (1).
This needs to be seen in a context where prior to the sustained political and economic crisis in 2003 Zimbabwe was exporting over €518 million in goods to the EU, with agricultural exports playing a major role, amounting to €350.5 million, some 68% of the value of total exports to the EU. This export trade was dominated by tobacco (36% of total exports), cut flowers (11%) edible fruit and vegetables (9%) sugar (5%) and tea (5%) (3). By 2017 according to the EC Zimbabwe’s exports consisted mainly of ‘tobacco, sugarcane, fruit, hides and leather, tea, flowers, metals and granite’, but also some non-traditional exports which has recently emerged such as ‘berries, stone fruit, peppers and peas’ (1).
Trends in the Value of Zimbabwean exports to the EU (2003, 2012 and 2017)
| Product | 2003 (€ m) | 2012 (€ m) | 2017 (€ m) | % change 2003-17 |
| Total Value Zimbabwean Exports to the EU | 518.2 | 417.5 | 453.8 | -12% |
| Tobacco (24) | 187.2 | 62.0 | 112.6 | -40% |
| Cut flowers (0603) | 57.4 | 9.0 | 5.0 | -92.3% |
| Edible fruit and vegetables (07+08+20) | 44.3 | 26.4 | 52.4 | +18% |
| Sugar | 24.8 | 93.9 | 25.1 | +5% |
| Tea | 23.9 | 6.0 | 6.0 | -75% |
| – Sub-Total | 337.6 | 197.3 | 201.1 | -40% |
| – Sub-total % total exports to EU | 65% | 47% | 44.5% |
Source: EC Market Access Data Base (3)
Of these Zimbabwean agri-food exports since the entry into force of the EPA dramatic declines in the value of sugar exports to the EU have occurred, with the value falling from a high of €115 million in 2014 to €25 million in 2017. This is attributable to the full implementation of EU sugar sector reforms which saw Zimbabwean sugar export revenues fall a massive 73% between 2012 and 2017, on the back of a 63% reduction in the tonnage of sugar exported to the EU28 market (3).
Zimbabwean Sugar exports to the EU 2012-2017
| 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | % change | |
| € | 93,929,257 | 47,523,106 | 115,281,137 | 76,821,520 | 40,290,422 | 25,061,004 | -73% |
| Tonnes | 150,605 | 75,625 | 270,628 | 184,289 | 104,814 | 55,047 | -63% |
Source: EC Market Access Data Base (3)
The decline in the value of Zimbabwean cut flower exports to the EU has failed to recover since 2012. In contrast between 2012 and 2017 exports of edible fruit and vegetables almost doubled, while the value of tobacco exports increased 82%. This increase in tobacco earnings however had nothing to do with the implementation of Zimbabwe-EU EPA, since tobacco imports are zero rated under all EU trade regimes
Zimbabwean Tobacco exports to the EU 2012-2017
| 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | % change | |
| € | 61,990,792 | 99,912,663 | 99,423,348 | 110,110,765 | 89,924,327 | 112,626,614 | +82% |
| Tonnes | 16,479 | 24,312 | 23,996 | 22,898 | 20,407 | 26,348 | +60% |
Source: EC Market Access Data Base (3)
Seychelles-EU Agri-Food Sector Trade
Seychelles exports to the EU consist mainly of fisheries products, with no agri-food product exports taking place.
In terms of the EU export trade to the Seychelles agri-food products accounted for only 8.7% of total EU exports in 2013, with this rising to 15.1% by 2017. EU exports of wine spirits and beer were collectively the most important category of EU exports reaching a value of approximately €10 million in 2017, or 22% of total EU agri-food exports to Seychelles.
All other categories of EU agri-food exports accounted for between €1 million and €3 million, with the most significant of these products being dairy exports, namely fresh milk, cream, buttermilk and yoghurt (€2 million), milk powders (€1 million), butter (€1 million) cheese (€1 million) and infant formula (€1 million). This growth in dairy export values from €3 million to €6 million (13% of EU agri-food exports) is no small achievement given the depressed state of global dairy prices since 2013.
The only other area of note is the growth in imports of poultry meat from the EU which increased 236% between 2013 and 2017, although be it from a very low base, to reach 947 tonnes in 2019, valued at €679,000.
EU-Seychelles Trade: (total and agri-food products € million and % share agri-food products)
| 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | % change | |
| EU exports from Seychelles | ||||||
| EU Total exports (€ m) | 321 | 237 | 302 | 279 | 298 | -7.2% |
| EU Agri- Food exports (€ m) | 28 | 31 | 37 | 41 | 45 | +61% |
| Agri-food % total EU exports | 8.7% | 13.1% | 12.3% | 14.7% | 15.1% |
Source: EC, EU Agri-food trade with Seychelles (6)
Comoros-EU Agri-Food Sector Trade
For the Comoros agri-food exports completely dominate their export trade with the EU, with according to the EC essential oils and tropical fruit and nuts both accounting for around half of the value of Comorian exports to the EU (1). Between 2013 and 2017 the value of these exports increased 54%. However a closer examination of EU trade data shows the main export categories are in fact essential oils, vanilla and cloves (3).
It is noteworthy that Comoros has been able to more than triple its earnings from vanilla exports despite a 71% decline in the volume of its exports of vanilla. This was attributable to low production in Madagascar as a result of cyclones which caused serious damage to the world’s biggest vanilla producer resulting in substantially higher prices (8).
Meanwhile earnings from essential oil exports have increased more than 150% despite the same volume of exports taking place. This needs to be seen in a context where demand for high quality essential oils in Europe is growing strongly (9)
Since 2012 EU agri-food exports to the Comoros have grown much faster than overall exports (+54% compared to 24.3%), with by 2017 poultry meat exports accounting for 55% of EU agri-food exports to the Comoros. Between 2013 and 2017 EU poultry meat exports to Comoros increased 86% in value and 117% in volume, increasing from 5,485 tonnes to 11,942 tonnes.
Comoros main agri-food exports to the EU 2013 to 2017 (€ ‘000)
| Products | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | % change |
| – Essential oils (33) | 3,815 | 3,485 | 5,167 | 7,669 | 9,823 | +157% |
| – Vanilla (0905) | 1,757 | 3,572 | 1,957 | 3,209 | 7,564 | +331% |
| – Cloves (0907) | 6,701 | 3,069 | 3,582 | 4,031 | 2,184 | -67% |
| – Sub-Total | 12,273 | 10,126 | 10706 | 14,909 | 19,574 | +59.5% |
Source: EC Market Access Data Base
This period also saw the emergence of EU beef exports to the Comoros rising from just over €20,000 to just under €1 million in value and from 8 tonnes to 439 tonnes in volume. There were no significant developments in other areas of EU agri-food exports to Comoros over this period.
EU-Comoros Trade (total and agri-food products € million and % share agri-food products)
| 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | % change | |
| EU imports from Comoros | ||||||
| EU Total Imports (€ m) | 13.4 | 10.8 | 11.1 | 15.5 | 19.7 | +47% |
| EU Agri- Food Imports (€ m) | 13.4 | 10 | 11.1 | 15.0 | 19.7 | 20.7% |
| Agri-food % total EU imports | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | |
| EU exports to Comoros | ||||||
| EU Total Exports (€ m) | 42.4 | 39.2 | 44.8 | 61.5 | 52.7 | +24.3% |
| EU Total Agri Food Exports (€ m) | 13 | 13 | 14 | 20 | 20 | +54% |
| Agri-food % total EU Exports | 31% | 33% | 31% | 32% | 38% |
Source: EC, ‘EU Agri-food trade with Comoros’ (7)
| Comment and Analysis
EU sugar sector reforms have had a major bearing on the value of Mauritian agri-food exports to the EU. These effects have been felt despite the early implementation of an extensive sugar sector restructuring and market repositioning programme, financed from both national resources and EU restructuring support. In addition to the development of diversified revenue sources from sugar cane production and industry restructuring and consolidation, the Mauritian sugar sector invested in moving up the value chain (10). This systematic well-design restructuring programme achieved economies of scale, higher efficiency and the production and marketing of a diversified range of products from sugar cane production. This included a shift away from raw sugar exports to exclusively exports of refined sugar products, in an effort to capitalise on the refine sugar price premium on the EU market (10). This repositioning strategy also included investment in the parent company (The Good Food Company) of the UK’s largest independent sugar bagging company (Napier Brown). This strategy initially enjoyed some success, but from 2014 the EU white sugar price premium over raw sugar narrowed and at times disappeared; undermining the unit value of Mauritian sugar exports (11). This saw export volumes steadily decline (-21.8%) and the unit price fall until a 10% price recovery took place in 2017, taking the unit price back up to above 2014 levels. Trends in Mauritian Sugar Exports to the EU and UK markets 2007-2017
Source: EC Market Access Data Base (3) However in 2018 the unit price for white sugar imports from ACP/EBA countries was below the raw sugar price (12). With the abolition of EU sugar production quotas in October 2017, EU sugar producers were able to supply deficit markets in the EU, most notably from a Mauritian perspective, the UK This saw a more than a 50% decline in Mauritian sugar exports to the EU in the 2017/2018 marketing year, with exports to the UK falling to below 20,000 tonnes (12). The overall net effect of EU sugar sector reforms and the opening up of access to other traditionally non-preferred suppliers (e.g. South Africa with its 150,000 tonnes quota on the EU market for refined sugar exports) has been to reduce the value of traditional agri-food sector tariff preferences since the full entry into force of the EU-Mauritius EPA in 2012. This has only partially being compensated for by the opening up of new non-traditional export opportunities. The Brexit process is creating further uncertainties. The difficulties faced by the UK government in securing Parliamentary ratification of the EU/UK Withdrawal Agreement means there is no certainty the provisions of Article 129 of the Withdrawal Agreement (which would roll over existing duty free-quota free access to the UK market until at least 1st January 2021) will enter into effect. This could mean the current basis for Mauritian duty free-quota free access to the UK market would fall away from 30th March 2019. However failure to ratify the Withdrawal Agreement could also create certain opportunities for Mauritian refined sugar exports. The absence of a Withdrawal Agreement would mean the imposition of standard MFN treatment on mutual EU27/UK trade. This would see high import duties levied on sugar imports into the UK from EU27 suppliers. This would be likely to reverse the recent expansion in EU27 sugar exports to the UK which has occurred as a result of the abolition of EU sugar production quotas in October 2017. This could create new opportunities for Mauritian refined sugar exports to the UK if the Government of Mauritius were able to roll over the existing duty free-quota free access to the UK market enjoyed under the EU-Mauritius EPA. This could be achieved through one of two courses of action: a) the launch, in association with other ACP EPA signatories, of a concerted campaign to persuade the UK government to unilaterally apply Article 129 of the concluded Withdrawal Agreement, regardless of the state of play in the Withdrawal Agreement ratification process; b) the adoption of immediate steps to ensure the Government of Mauritius is in a position to sign a ‘rolled over’ ‘interim-UK-only’ reciprocal trade agreement based on a revised EPA text by 29th March 2019. Option a) would provide certainty for UK and 3rd country commercial operators in the run up to the UK’s withdrawal from the EU, thereby averting disruption of Mauritian sugar exports to the UK market, in a context where new market opportunities could emerge if the UK were to apply standard MFN duties on sugar imports from EU27 member states. While option b) could also ensure Mauritius was well placed to exploit any new market opportunities which would emerge if the UK were to apply standard MFN duties on sugar imports from EU27 member states, it would also need to include a special annex setting out a detailed list of Mauritian concerns which would need to be addressed under the final agreement with the UK prior to ratification of the agreement in Mauritius. This would be essential for ensuring a favourable long term basis for future Mauritius-UK relations. Similar considerations apply to Zimbabwe’s sugar export trade with the EU, which has similarly suffered as a result of the full implementation of the EU’s sugar sector reform programme, but with this being compounded in the case of Zimbabwe by the prolonged domestic political and economic turmoil which for many years saw Zimbabwe excluded from EU programmes of support for sugar sector adjustment, from which Mauritius was able to benefit. Zimbabwean exports volumes to the EU have fluctuated wildly, but with a steady decline in export volumes since 2014 (-79.7%), with a corresponding decline in export earnings. Zimbabwean Sugar exports to the EU Over the EPA Implementation period since 2012
Source: EC Market Access Data Base Indeed the domestic political and economic turmoil in Zimbabwe had left the sugar sector ill prepared for the increased competition on the EU market which arose from the abolition of EU sugar production quotas in October 2017. As a result in the 2017/18 marketing year Zimbabwe sugar disappeared from the EU market. Against this background Zimbabwe is less well placed to exploit potential market opportunities in the UK arising from a ‘no-deal’ Brexit than Mauritius, even if existing duty free-quota free access to the UK market could be unilaterally extended through either a concerted initiative by ACP EPA signatories or via the rolling over of the existing EU-Zimbabwe EPA into a bilateral Zimbabwean-‘UK only’ FTA. Beyond the sugar sector, the increasingly strict application of EU SPS standards, particularly in regard to citrus black spot and under the EU’s new Plant Health Regulation, is likely to make the restoration of previous levels of horticulture and floriculture exports extremely difficult in the foreseeable future, recent growth in the value of horticulture exports notwithstanding. A ‘no-deal’ Brexit is also likely to complicate cut flower exports via the Dutch flower auctions (which dominates Zimbabwe’s cut flower export trade to the EU). This being noted a ‘no-deal’ Brexit by disrupting triangular supply chains via the Dutch flower auctions, could potentially open up new opportunities for direct exports to the UK. However, this will of course depend on the success the Government of Zimbabwe in securing the rolling over of existing duty free-quota free access to the UK market in the immediate post Brexit period, which under a ‘no-deal’ scenario would commence from the 30th March 2019. Zimbabwean Cut flower Exports to the EU and UK (tonnes)
Source: EC Market Access Data Base For the Comoros the major issue arising under the EPA relates to the expansion of EU poultry meat exports, with the Comoros now taking nearly 12,000 tonnes per annum, despite having a population of under 1 million (or 14 kg per capita). It is unclear to what extent this would impact on local poultry producers and want impact a ‘no-deal’ Brexit would have on export volumes from both the EU27 and the UK, given the disruption of trade in EU27/UK animal products which a ‘no-deal’ exit of the UK from the EU would give rise to. This is also potentially an issue for Zimbabwe, although any expansion of this trade would be likely to occur via South Africa rather than directly to Zimbabwe from the EU, given the tariff preferences EU poultry meat exporters enjoy over other third country suppliers in their trade with South Africa. For both Madagascar and the Seychelles, the Brexit process could potentially create new opportunities for value added fisheries exports to the UK, since under a ‘no-deal’ scenario the UK would have no need of restrictive rules of origin for fisheries products, given the absence of any UK long-distance fishing fleet. This would open up new opportunities for investment and trade directly serving the UK fisheries market, particularly if standard ‘inherited’ MFN duties were imposed on UK fisheries imports from EU27 members. Given the absence of any significant agri-food sector export trade under the Seychelles-EU EPA no major issues arise on the export side for Seychelles in the agri-food sector in future trade with the EU. |
Sources:
(1) EC, ‘Individual reports and info sheets on implementation of EU Free Trade Agreements’, Commission Staff Working Documents, pp 241-245, SWD(2018) 454 final, 31 October 2018
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2018/october/tradoc_157473.PDF
(2) EU Agri-food trade with Mauritius
https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/trade-analysis/statistics/outside-eu/countries/agrifood-mauritius_en.pdf
(3) EC, Market Access Data Base,
http://madb.europa.eu/madb/statistical_form.htm
(4)EU Agri-food trade with Madagascar
https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/trade-analysis/statistics/outside-eu/countries/agrifood-madagascar_en.pdf
(5) EU Agri-food trade with Zimbabwe
https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/trade-analysis/statistics/outside-eu/countries/agrifood-zimbabwe_en.pdf
(6) EU Agri-food trade with Seychelles
https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/trade-analysis/statistics/outside-eu/countries/agrifood-seychelles_en.pdf
(7) EU Agri-food trade with Comoros
https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/trade-analysis/statistics/outside-eu/countries/agrifood-comoros_en.pdf
(8) CBI, ‘Exporting vanilla to Europe’
https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/spices-herbs/vanilla
(9) CBI, ‘Exporting essential oils for aromatherapy to Europe’
https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/natural-ingredients-cosmetics/essential-oils-aromatherapy
(10) definmedia.info, ‘EU abolishes quotas: sour future for our sugar?’ 3 October 2017
https://defimedia.info/eu-abolishes-quotas-sour-future-our-sugar
(11) EC, ‘Market situation’, Arable crops, Sugar team DG Agriculture and Rural Development European Commission Sugar Market Observatory, 12 April 2018
https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/market-observatory/sugar/reports/smo-12-04-18-market-presentation.pdf
(12) EC, ‘Market situation’, Arable crops, Sugar team DG Agriculture and Rural Development European Commission Sugar Market Observatory, 20 December 2018
https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/market-observatory/sugar/doc/market-situation_en.pdf